Uncovering the web of Power and Divergence during the Neo-Assyrian Empire
The discovery of an inscribed stele at Tell ʿAbṭa, west of modern-day Mosul (anc. Nineveh), provides valuable insights into the actions of the palace herald (nāgir ekalli), and governor of Guzana (mod. Tell Halaf, Syria), Bēl-Ḫarrān-bēlu-uṣur (782-727 BC), during the reigns of Šalmaneser IV and later Tiglath-pileser III. The inscription (RIAO Shalmaneser IV 2) highlights Bēl-Ḫarrān-bēlu-uṣur's role in founding Dūr (Fort)-Bēl-Harrān-bēlu-uṣur, naming it after himself, and emphasizing the construction of both the city and its temple. This historical artifact contributes to our understanding of the dynamics within the Assyrian Empire during this period and the notable actions of regional officials in asserting their influence.
Pictured: Ancient city of Dūr-Bēl-Harrān-bēlu-uṣur (mod. Tell ʿAbṭa), Iraq https://pleiades.stoa.org/places/111343632
What is striking is that according to his stele, Bēl-Harrān-bēlu-uṣur places his own name, and attributes himself to the creation of the new city, over the incumbent king. The later mention of Tiglath-Pileser III on the stele, despite its dating to Šalmaneser IV's reign, suggests the possibility of alterations or additions to the inscription over time. Such modifications could have been made to align the historical account with subsequent political developments or to enhance the legacy of Bēl-Harrān-bēlu-uṣur during Tiglath-Pileser III's era. This illustrates the dynamic nature of historical records and the potential for manipulation to serve political purposes. Another discovery from the stele is that the city was granted a tax-free status, known at the time as 'zakūtu' - which was otherwise an exclusive privilege of the king.
The text reads:
“Bēl-Ḫarrān-bēlu-uṣur, the palace herald of Tiglath-pileser (III), king of Assyria, the worshipper of the great gods: these mighty lords gave me instructions and, at their exalted command and with their firm assent, I set out to build a city in the desert, in the wasteland. I completed (it) from its foundations to its crenelations. I constructed a temple and found therein a shrine for the great gods. I laid its foundation as firm as the base of a mountain (and) established its base for eternity. I made it known among the people that its name was (lit. “I named it in the mouth of the people”) Dūr-Bēl-Ḫarrān-bēlu-uṣur and made a good road to it…”
“…I established freedom from taxation for that city: grain (and) straw taxes will not be collected; (20) no one will divert its water into another channel, change its boundaries, (or) charge a tax on herds or flocks. (State) service (and) corvée duty will not be imposed upon the people who live there. No one else will impose upon them deprivation, nor will they do servitude.”
Pictured: Stele of Bēl-Ḫarrān-bēlu-uṣur
We now turn our attention to the military front where we also find acts of exceptional power. Šamši-ilu (800-752 BC) held office for over forty years and was appointed turtānu (commander-in-chief) under Adad- nārārī III (810–783 BC) and at times campaigned with the king, and at times campaigned independently. However, it is the manner in which he is mentioned in official records that is most striking. According to the Antakya Stele (RIAO Adad-nerari III 02), Adad- nārārī jointly mentioning his commander-in-chief in connection with drawing up boundary lines suggests that he may have in fact been responsible for dictating such terms. In later texts, Šamši-ilu claims to have acted completely on his own.
The text reads: “The boundary that Adad-nārārī (III), king of Assyria, (and) Šamšī-ilu, the field marshal established between Zakkūru of the land of Hamath and Attār-šumki, son of Abi-rāmu: the city Naḫlasi, together with all its fields, gardens, [and] settlements, is (the property) of Attār-šumki. They divided the Orontes River between them. This is the border.”
Pictured: The Antakya stela ©Livious.org I Jona Lendering.
However, what we learn from this following text transcends Šamši-ilu from commander-in-chief to a king-like figure. The discovery of two stone lions at the east gate of the ancient city of Til-Barsip, also called Kār-Shalmaneser (mod. Tell Ahmar, Syria), yields a wealth of knowledge about Šamši-ilu. The inscription (RIAO Adad-nerari III 2010) reveals that the stone lions were built under his command. We learn that he led a military campaign against Argišti I of Urartu and speaks of the command to wage war, not under the authority of the king, but of the national god Aššur, along with the divine wisdom associated with the deity. The incumbent king during this campaign which we learn from the Limmu List, also known as the Assyrian Eponym List, in 780 BC, was also Šalmaneser IV, who is nowhere to be found on the inscription which insinuates that Šamši-ilu acted under his own accord independent of the king. He also gives himself many titles such as: “the field marshal, the great herald, the chief of the extensive army, the governor of the land Ḫatti, the land Gutium, and all of the land Namri”. It is customary that such titles are reserved for a king’s inscription.
Like Bēl-Harrān-bēlu-uṣur, we learn from another text (RIAO Adad-nerari III 2012) that Šamši-ilu also founded a city near the religious capital of Aššur (mod. Qalat Sherqat, Iraq) and called it Šarru-iddina (“The King gave me it”).
The reign of Šalmaneser IV (782-773 BC) witnessed a challenging period for the Assyrian Empire. The increased authority of officials, as evidenced by their issuance of inscriptions, indicates a decentralization of power within the monarchy. This shift not only weakened the central authority of the monarch but also created an environment where regional powers could assert themselves, either seeking independence or challenging Assyrian control. The combination of internal power struggles and external challenges likely contributed to the decline and obscurity experienced during Šalmaneser IV's rule.
Abbreviations
RIAO = Royal Inscriptions of Assyria online
References
Frahm, E 2017, A Companion to Assyria, Wiley-Blackwell, United States.
Grayson A.K. 1993, ‘Assyrian Officials and Power in the Ninth and Eighth Centuries’, SAAB 7, 19-52.